IMPACT OF ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE ON NET RETURNS IN SMALLHOLDER PIGEON PEA PRODUCTION SYSTEMS IN SEMI-ARID KENYA
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.47604/ija.1111Keywords:
Climate Change, Adoption, Pigeon Pea, Income Propensity Score Matching, Semi-Arid Areas KenyaAbstract
Purpose: Improved pigeon pea varieties were promoted in semi-arid areas of Kenya to improve smallholder pigeon pea production systems resilience to climate change. However, the impact of adoption is unknown. This study was carried out to evaluate the impact of adoption on farming households' net farm returns in semi-arid South Eastern Kenya in the context of adaptation to climate change. The objectives were to (i)describe farmer's perceptions on production of improved varieties of pigeon peas as an adaptation strategy to climate change, (ii) evaluate the impact of the adoption on household's net returns. Propensity score matching approach was used to assess the impact of the adoption.
Methodology: The study used cross sectional data gathered through household survey to evaluate the impact of adoption on farming households' net farm returns in semi-arid South Eastern Kenya in the context of adaptation to climate change.. The study was conducted in semi-arid zones of Machakos County in South Eastern Kenya (SEK) namely Masinga, Mavoko and Mwala Wards. The areas were purposively selected for semi-arid semi-arid climatic conditions and dominant pigeon pea production.The study adopts the counterfactual approach and propensity score matching method to evaluate the impact of adopting improved pigeon peas on household net farm income. Data was analyzed using STATA 13.0 statistical package.
Findings: The results showed that 33 percent of the sampled households had adopted production of improved pigeon peas and they perceived adoption of the technology as an adaptation strategy to climate change viewed through tolerance to drought, pest and diseases, increased crop yield and shortened crop growth period. Improved pigeon peas significantly increased farmers' net income, the adopter got a net farm income of KES 30,710 per acre per year that was KES 18, 631 more than non-adopting households.
Unique contribution to theory, practice and policy: The study recommends that County Governments facilitate farmers to produce pigeon pea seeds through improved access to seed and linkage to reliable market for their farm produce to increase their farm income.
Downloads
Download data is not yet available.
References
Abid M, Schneider UA, Scheffran J (2016) Adaptation to climate change and its impacts on food productivity and crop income: Perspectives of farmers in rural Pakistan. Journal of Rural Studies 47:254-266.
Adrian AM, Norwood SH, Mask PL (2005) Producers' perceptions and attitudes toward precision agriculture technologies. Computer Electronic Agriculture 48:256-271.
Amare M, Asfaw, S, Bekele Shiferaw B. (2012).Welfare impacts of maize-pigeonpea intensification in Tanzania. Agricultural Economics: 43:27-43
Audu VI, Aye, G.C. (2014) Effects of improved maize technology on household welfare in Buruku, Benue State, Nigeria. Cogent Economics and Finance 2:1-10.
Awotide BA, Alene AD, Abdoulaye T, Manyong VM (2015) Impact of agricultural technology adoption on asset ownership: The case of improved cassava varieties in Nigeria. Food Security 7(6): 1239-1258.
Becker SO and Ichino A (2002) Estimation of average treatment effects based on propensity scores. The Stata Journal, 2 (4): 358-377.
Birthal PS, Roy D, Negi DS (2015) Assessing the Impact of Crop Diversification on Farm Poverty in India. World Development 72:70-92.
Boko A, Niang I, Nyong A, Vogel C, Githeko A, Medany M, OsmanElasha B, Tabo R, Yanda P (2007) Africa. In: Parry ML, Canziani OF, Palutikof JP, van der Linden PJ, Hanson CE (eds) Climate change 2007: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 433-467.
Carabine E, Simonet C (2018). Value Chain Analysis for Resilience in Drylands (VC-ARID): Identification of adaptation options in key sectors. VC-ARID synthesis report. [online] Available at: http://prise.odi.org/research/value-chain-analysis-for-resilience-in-drylands-vc-arid-identification-of-adaptation-options-in-key-sectors-2/.
Cheboi J, Kinyua MG, Kiplagat O, Kimurto P, Nadigatla GVPR (2016) Yield potential and adaptability of medium duration pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L. Millsp) genotypes in dry parts of North Rift valley, Kenya. International Journal of Agronomy and Agricultural Research, 9(2): 47-56.
Claessens L, Antle JM, Stoorvogel JJ, Valdivia RO, Thornton PK, Herrero M. (2012). A Method of Evaluating Climate Change Adaptation Strategies for Small-scale Farmers using Survey, Experimental and Modeled Data. Agricultural Systems, 111: 85-95.
Copper PJM, Dimes J, Rao KPC, Siparo B, Shiferaw B, Towmlow S. (2008). Coping better with Climate variability in the semi-arid farming systems of Sub-Saharan Africa: An essential first step in adapting to future climate change. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 126 (2) 24-35
FAO (2014). Adapting to climate change through land and water management in Eastern Africa: Results of pilot projects in Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania. Food and Agriculture Organization. Rome FAO. [Google Scholar]
FAOSTAT (2019). Pigeonpea production in the world 1994-2018.
Gichangi EM, Gatheru M, Njiru, EN, Mungube EO, Wambua JM, Wamuongo JW (2015) Assessment of climate variability and change in semi-arid Eastern Kenya. Climatic Change 130:287-297.
Government of Kenya. (2015) Economic Review of Agriculture. Ministry of Agriculture: Central Planning and Project Monitoring Unit. Government Printers, Nairobi, Kenya.
Government of Kenya (2016) Kenya National Adaptation Plan 2015-2030: Enhanced climate resilience towards the attainment of Vision 2030 and beyond. Government Printers, Nairobi.
Gwata ET (2010) Potential impact of edible tropical legumes on crop productivity in the small-holder sector in Sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Food Agricultural Environment 8: 939- 944.
IPCC (2014) Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Field CB, Barros VR, Dokken DJ, Mach KJ, Mastrandrea MD, Bilir TE, Chatterjee M, Ebi KL, Estrada YO, Genova RC, Girma B, Kissel ES, Levy AN, MacCracken S, Mastrandrea PR, White LL (eds.). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1132 pp.
IPCC (2007) Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the International Panel on Climate Change. Parry ML, Canziani OF, Palutikof JP, Van der Linden PJ, Hanson CE, Eds., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 976pp.
Jaetzold R, Scmidt H, Hornetz B, Shisanya C (2006) Farm management hand book of Kenya. Volume II. Natural conditions and farm management information. Second edition, Part C. Eastern Kenya.
Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. (2018). Basic Report Based on 2015/16 Kenya Integrated Household Budget Survey.
Kimiti JM, Odee DW, Vanlauwe B (2009). Area under grain legumes cultivation and problems faced by smallholder farmers in legume production in the semi-arid eastern Kenya. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa 11(4): 305-315.
Kothari CR (2004) Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. 2nd revised edition. New Age International (P) Ltd, Publishers, New Delhi, India.
Kwena, K., Karuku, G. N., Ayuke, F. O. and Esilaba, A. O. (2019). Nitrogen deficiency in semi-arid Kenya: can pigeon pea fix it? East African Agricultural and Forestry Journal 83 (4): 322-340
Kwena KM, Ayuke FO, Karuku GN, Esilaba AO (2018) "˜No rain but bumper harvest: the magic of pigeonpea in semi-arid Kenya', International Journal of Agricultural Resources, Governance and Ecology, 14 (2): 181-203
Makelo MN, Melis R, Githiri M (2013) Analysis of stakeholders in the pigeon pea [cajanus cajan (l.)millsp.] value chain for determination of a hybrid breeding agenda in Kenya. International Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 16 (2): 1493-1502
Mekoya A, Oosting S, Fernandez-Rivera S, Van der Zijpp AJ (2008) Farmers' perceptions about exotic multipurpose fodder trees and constraints to their adoption. Agroforestry systems, 73 (2), 141-153.
Mendola, M. 2007. Agricultural technology adoption and poverty reduction: A propensity score matching analysis for rural Bangladesh. Food Policy 32 (3): 372-393.
Mikmina P, Gerber N,Wünscher T (2018) Impacts of adaptation to climate change on farmers' income in the Savana region of Togo. Centre of Development Research. ZEF-Discussion Papers on Development Policy No. 255
Milgroom J, Giller KE (2013). Courting the rain: Rethinking seasonality and adaptation to recurrent drought in semi-arid southern Africa. Agricultural Systems, 118, 91-104.
Mishra, A K., Kumar A., Joshi, P. K., D'souza, A. (2018). Impact of contract farming on yield, costs and profitability in low"value crop: Evidence from a low"income country. Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics 62 (4): 589-607.
Miriti JM, Kironchi G, Esilaba AO, Heng LK, Gachene CKK, Mwangi DM (2012) Yield and water use efficiencies for maize and cowpeas as affected by tillage and cropping systems in semi-arid eastern Kenya. Agriculture and Water Management 115:148-155
Mottaleb KA (2018) Perception and adoption of a new agricultural technology: Evidence from a Developing country. Technology in Society 55: 126-135.
Nguezet PD, Diagne A, Okoruwa VO, Ojehomon V (2011) Impact of improved rice technology (NERICA varieties) on income and poverty among rice farming households in Nigeria: A local average treatment effect (LATE) approach. Quarterly Journal of International Agriculture 50(3): 267-292.
Niang I, Ruppel OC,Abdrabo MA, Essel A, Lennard C, Padgham J, Urquhart P (2014) Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working GroupII to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Barros, VR, Field CB, Dokken DJ, Mastrandrea MD, Mach KJ, Bilir TE, Chatterjee M, Ebi KL, Estrada YO, Genova RC, Girma B, Kissel ES, Levy AN, MacCracken S, Mastrandrea PR, White LL (eds.) Cambridge University Press,Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1199-1265.
Odeny DA (2007).The potential of pigeon pea in Africa. Natural Resources Forum 31(4): 297-305.
Olubayo FM, Mwang'ombe AW, Kimani PM (2007) Dissemination and adoption of improved pigeon pea technologies among dryland communities in Kenya. A paper presented at the Agricultural Innovation in Dryland Africa (AIDA) conference held at Accra, Ghana, 22-24 January, 2007
Quan J and Dyer N (2008) Climate Change and Land Tenure: The Implications of Climate Change for Land Tenure and Land Policy (2008). http://gala.gre.ac.uk/2146/.
Rosenbaum PR, Rubin DB (1983) The Central role of the propensity score in observational studies for causal effects. Biometrika Journal 70: 41-55.
Saxena KB, Kumar RV, Sultana R (2010). Quality nutrition through pigeon pea: A review. Journal of Nutrition and Health 21:1335-1344.
Shackleton S, Ziervogel G, Sallu SM, Gill T, Tschakert P (2015)Why is socially-just climate change adaptation in sub-Saharan Africa so challenging? A review of barriers identified from empirical cases. WIREs Climate Change 6: 321-344
Silim SN, Mergeai G, and Kimani PM (eds) (2001). Status and potential of pigeon pea in Eastern and Southern Africa: Proceedings of a regional workshop, Nairobi 12-15 September 2000.
Simtowe F, Muange E, Munyua B, Diagne A. (2012). Technology awareness and adoption: The case of improved pigeon pea varieties in Kenya. Paper presented at the International Association of Agricultural Economists Triennial Conference in Brazil, Foz do Iguaçu August 18-24, 2012.
Simtowe F, Asfaw S, Abate T. (2016).Determinants of agricultural technology adoption under partial population awareness: the case of pigeon pea in Malawi. Agricultural and Food Economics 4 (7): 1-17
Tesfaye S, Bedada B, Mesay Y. (2016). Impact of improved wheat technology adoption on productivity and income in Ethiopia. African Crop Science Journal 24: 127-135.
Vanlauwe B and Giller E (2006) Popular myths around soil fertility management in sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Agriculture and Ecosystem Environment 116: 34-46.
Vanlauwe B, Descheemaeker K, Giller KE, Huising J, Merckx R, Nziguheba G, Wendt J, Singore S (2015) Integrated soil fertility management in sub-Saharan Africa: unravelling local adaptation. Soil Journal 1:491-508. Available at www.soil-journal.net/1/491/2015/ doi:10.5194/soil-1-491-2015.
Vijay ANA, Singh G. (2013) Adoption of improved practices of pigeon pea in India. Journal of food legumes 26(2):93-100.
Wambua JM, Ngigi, Lutta, M. (2017).Yields of Green Grams and Pigeon peas under Smallholder Conditions in Machakos County, Kenya. East African Agricultural and Forestry Journal. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00128325.2017.1346903
Walton JC, Lambert DM, Roberts RK, Larson JA, English BC, Larkin SL (2008) Adoption and Abandonment of Precision Soil Sampling in Cotton Production. Journal of Agricultural Resource Economics33:428-48.
Zingore S, Delve R J, Nyamangara J, Giller K E (2007) Multiple benefits of manure: The key to maintenance of soil fertility and restoration of depleted sandy soils on African smallholder farms. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 80(3):267-282.
Adrian AM, Norwood SH, Mask PL (2005) Producers' perceptions and attitudes toward precision agriculture technologies. Computer Electronic Agriculture 48:256-271.
Amare M, Asfaw, S, Bekele Shiferaw B. (2012).Welfare impacts of maize-pigeonpea intensification in Tanzania. Agricultural Economics: 43:27-43
Audu VI, Aye, G.C. (2014) Effects of improved maize technology on household welfare in Buruku, Benue State, Nigeria. Cogent Economics and Finance 2:1-10.
Awotide BA, Alene AD, Abdoulaye T, Manyong VM (2015) Impact of agricultural technology adoption on asset ownership: The case of improved cassava varieties in Nigeria. Food Security 7(6): 1239-1258.
Becker SO and Ichino A (2002) Estimation of average treatment effects based on propensity scores. The Stata Journal, 2 (4): 358-377.
Birthal PS, Roy D, Negi DS (2015) Assessing the Impact of Crop Diversification on Farm Poverty in India. World Development 72:70-92.
Boko A, Niang I, Nyong A, Vogel C, Githeko A, Medany M, OsmanElasha B, Tabo R, Yanda P (2007) Africa. In: Parry ML, Canziani OF, Palutikof JP, van der Linden PJ, Hanson CE (eds) Climate change 2007: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 433-467.
Carabine E, Simonet C (2018). Value Chain Analysis for Resilience in Drylands (VC-ARID): Identification of adaptation options in key sectors. VC-ARID synthesis report. [online] Available at: http://prise.odi.org/research/value-chain-analysis-for-resilience-in-drylands-vc-arid-identification-of-adaptation-options-in-key-sectors-2/.
Cheboi J, Kinyua MG, Kiplagat O, Kimurto P, Nadigatla GVPR (2016) Yield potential and adaptability of medium duration pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L. Millsp) genotypes in dry parts of North Rift valley, Kenya. International Journal of Agronomy and Agricultural Research, 9(2): 47-56.
Claessens L, Antle JM, Stoorvogel JJ, Valdivia RO, Thornton PK, Herrero M. (2012). A Method of Evaluating Climate Change Adaptation Strategies for Small-scale Farmers using Survey, Experimental and Modeled Data. Agricultural Systems, 111: 85-95.
Copper PJM, Dimes J, Rao KPC, Siparo B, Shiferaw B, Towmlow S. (2008). Coping better with Climate variability in the semi-arid farming systems of Sub-Saharan Africa: An essential first step in adapting to future climate change. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 126 (2) 24-35
FAO (2014). Adapting to climate change through land and water management in Eastern Africa: Results of pilot projects in Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania. Food and Agriculture Organization. Rome FAO. [Google Scholar]
FAOSTAT (2019). Pigeonpea production in the world 1994-2018.
Gichangi EM, Gatheru M, Njiru, EN, Mungube EO, Wambua JM, Wamuongo JW (2015) Assessment of climate variability and change in semi-arid Eastern Kenya. Climatic Change 130:287-297.
Government of Kenya. (2015) Economic Review of Agriculture. Ministry of Agriculture: Central Planning and Project Monitoring Unit. Government Printers, Nairobi, Kenya.
Government of Kenya (2016) Kenya National Adaptation Plan 2015-2030: Enhanced climate resilience towards the attainment of Vision 2030 and beyond. Government Printers, Nairobi.
Gwata ET (2010) Potential impact of edible tropical legumes on crop productivity in the small-holder sector in Sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Food Agricultural Environment 8: 939- 944.
IPCC (2014) Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Field CB, Barros VR, Dokken DJ, Mach KJ, Mastrandrea MD, Bilir TE, Chatterjee M, Ebi KL, Estrada YO, Genova RC, Girma B, Kissel ES, Levy AN, MacCracken S, Mastrandrea PR, White LL (eds.). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1132 pp.
IPCC (2007) Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the International Panel on Climate Change. Parry ML, Canziani OF, Palutikof JP, Van der Linden PJ, Hanson CE, Eds., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 976pp.
Jaetzold R, Scmidt H, Hornetz B, Shisanya C (2006) Farm management hand book of Kenya. Volume II. Natural conditions and farm management information. Second edition, Part C. Eastern Kenya.
Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. (2018). Basic Report Based on 2015/16 Kenya Integrated Household Budget Survey.
Kimiti JM, Odee DW, Vanlauwe B (2009). Area under grain legumes cultivation and problems faced by smallholder farmers in legume production in the semi-arid eastern Kenya. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa 11(4): 305-315.
Kothari CR (2004) Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. 2nd revised edition. New Age International (P) Ltd, Publishers, New Delhi, India.
Kwena, K., Karuku, G. N., Ayuke, F. O. and Esilaba, A. O. (2019). Nitrogen deficiency in semi-arid Kenya: can pigeon pea fix it? East African Agricultural and Forestry Journal 83 (4): 322-340
Kwena KM, Ayuke FO, Karuku GN, Esilaba AO (2018) "˜No rain but bumper harvest: the magic of pigeonpea in semi-arid Kenya', International Journal of Agricultural Resources, Governance and Ecology, 14 (2): 181-203
Makelo MN, Melis R, Githiri M (2013) Analysis of stakeholders in the pigeon pea [cajanus cajan (l.)millsp.] value chain for determination of a hybrid breeding agenda in Kenya. International Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 16 (2): 1493-1502
Mekoya A, Oosting S, Fernandez-Rivera S, Van der Zijpp AJ (2008) Farmers' perceptions about exotic multipurpose fodder trees and constraints to their adoption. Agroforestry systems, 73 (2), 141-153.
Mendola, M. 2007. Agricultural technology adoption and poverty reduction: A propensity score matching analysis for rural Bangladesh. Food Policy 32 (3): 372-393.
Mikmina P, Gerber N,Wünscher T (2018) Impacts of adaptation to climate change on farmers' income in the Savana region of Togo. Centre of Development Research. ZEF-Discussion Papers on Development Policy No. 255
Milgroom J, Giller KE (2013). Courting the rain: Rethinking seasonality and adaptation to recurrent drought in semi-arid southern Africa. Agricultural Systems, 118, 91-104.
Mishra, A K., Kumar A., Joshi, P. K., D'souza, A. (2018). Impact of contract farming on yield, costs and profitability in low"value crop: Evidence from a low"income country. Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics 62 (4): 589-607.
Miriti JM, Kironchi G, Esilaba AO, Heng LK, Gachene CKK, Mwangi DM (2012) Yield and water use efficiencies for maize and cowpeas as affected by tillage and cropping systems in semi-arid eastern Kenya. Agriculture and Water Management 115:148-155
Mottaleb KA (2018) Perception and adoption of a new agricultural technology: Evidence from a Developing country. Technology in Society 55: 126-135.
Nguezet PD, Diagne A, Okoruwa VO, Ojehomon V (2011) Impact of improved rice technology (NERICA varieties) on income and poverty among rice farming households in Nigeria: A local average treatment effect (LATE) approach. Quarterly Journal of International Agriculture 50(3): 267-292.
Niang I, Ruppel OC,Abdrabo MA, Essel A, Lennard C, Padgham J, Urquhart P (2014) Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working GroupII to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Barros, VR, Field CB, Dokken DJ, Mastrandrea MD, Mach KJ, Bilir TE, Chatterjee M, Ebi KL, Estrada YO, Genova RC, Girma B, Kissel ES, Levy AN, MacCracken S, Mastrandrea PR, White LL (eds.) Cambridge University Press,Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1199-1265.
Odeny DA (2007).The potential of pigeon pea in Africa. Natural Resources Forum 31(4): 297-305.
Olubayo FM, Mwang'ombe AW, Kimani PM (2007) Dissemination and adoption of improved pigeon pea technologies among dryland communities in Kenya. A paper presented at the Agricultural Innovation in Dryland Africa (AIDA) conference held at Accra, Ghana, 22-24 January, 2007
Quan J and Dyer N (2008) Climate Change and Land Tenure: The Implications of Climate Change for Land Tenure and Land Policy (2008). http://gala.gre.ac.uk/2146/.
Rosenbaum PR, Rubin DB (1983) The Central role of the propensity score in observational studies for causal effects. Biometrika Journal 70: 41-55.
Saxena KB, Kumar RV, Sultana R (2010). Quality nutrition through pigeon pea: A review. Journal of Nutrition and Health 21:1335-1344.
Shackleton S, Ziervogel G, Sallu SM, Gill T, Tschakert P (2015)Why is socially-just climate change adaptation in sub-Saharan Africa so challenging? A review of barriers identified from empirical cases. WIREs Climate Change 6: 321-344
Silim SN, Mergeai G, and Kimani PM (eds) (2001). Status and potential of pigeon pea in Eastern and Southern Africa: Proceedings of a regional workshop, Nairobi 12-15 September 2000.
Simtowe F, Muange E, Munyua B, Diagne A. (2012). Technology awareness and adoption: The case of improved pigeon pea varieties in Kenya. Paper presented at the International Association of Agricultural Economists Triennial Conference in Brazil, Foz do Iguaçu August 18-24, 2012.
Simtowe F, Asfaw S, Abate T. (2016).Determinants of agricultural technology adoption under partial population awareness: the case of pigeon pea in Malawi. Agricultural and Food Economics 4 (7): 1-17
Tesfaye S, Bedada B, Mesay Y. (2016). Impact of improved wheat technology adoption on productivity and income in Ethiopia. African Crop Science Journal 24: 127-135.
Vanlauwe B and Giller E (2006) Popular myths around soil fertility management in sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Agriculture and Ecosystem Environment 116: 34-46.
Vanlauwe B, Descheemaeker K, Giller KE, Huising J, Merckx R, Nziguheba G, Wendt J, Singore S (2015) Integrated soil fertility management in sub-Saharan Africa: unravelling local adaptation. Soil Journal 1:491-508. Available at www.soil-journal.net/1/491/2015/ doi:10.5194/soil-1-491-2015.
Vijay ANA, Singh G. (2013) Adoption of improved practices of pigeon pea in India. Journal of food legumes 26(2):93-100.
Wambua JM, Ngigi, Lutta, M. (2017).Yields of Green Grams and Pigeon peas under Smallholder Conditions in Machakos County, Kenya. East African Agricultural and Forestry Journal. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00128325.2017.1346903
Walton JC, Lambert DM, Roberts RK, Larson JA, English BC, Larkin SL (2008) Adoption and Abandonment of Precision Soil Sampling in Cotton Production. Journal of Agricultural Resource Economics33:428-48.
Zingore S, Delve R J, Nyamangara J, Giller K E (2007) Multiple benefits of manure: The key to maintenance of soil fertility and restoration of depleted sandy soils on African smallholder farms. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 80(3):267-282.
Downloads
Published
2020-08-08
How to Cite
Matere, S. J., Busienei, R. J., & Mbatia, O. L. E. (2020). IMPACT OF ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE ON NET RETURNS IN SMALLHOLDER PIGEON PEA PRODUCTION SYSTEMS IN SEMI-ARID KENYA. International Journal of Agriculture, 5(1), 39 – 56. https://doi.org/10.47604/ija.1111
Issue
Section
Articles
License
Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgment of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
